LiteratureAs in many cultures, literature, in the classical centuries of Islam, mostly in Arabic and Persian, was a major source of inspiration for the arts. Most of it was highly secular in mood and subject matter, although, especially in the case of Persian lyrical poetry, mystical thoughts and attitudes can be clearly detected, just as poetry itself had an impact on the symbolism of mystical writing. The ways in which literature inspired the acts can be discussed in three different ways.
The first, and most obvious one, is iconographic. Literary subjects inspired artists working in many different media (ceramics. wall painting, metalwork, even textiles), while, from the 12th century onward, book illustration became a significant artistic activity. The variety of genres illustrated was considerable and only a few of the most significant examples follow. The Maqamcat (Assemblies) of al-Hariri of Basra (1054—1122), is remarkable for brilliant use of the Arabic language to recount the adventures of its cunning hero, Abu- Zaid. The illustrations of the various manuscripts, executed over a period of a century and a half, aimed to depict the stories involved, and, through them, the urban milieu in which they were supposed to have taken place. The epic Shahname (King’s Book), composed by the Persian poet Firdausi (d. 1020) around the year 1000, consists of a heroic and largely mythical history of Iran from the time of Creation to the beginning of Islam. Its many stories of kings, warriors, battles. feasts, and love lent themselves to illustrations, of which hundreds have survived from the end of the 13th century onward. Most of them exhibit a dramatic mood and a high(y symbolic rendering. The Indian animal fables Kalila wa—Dimoa (Kalila and Dimna), translated in the 8th century from Persian into Arabic by Ibn al-Muqaffa, are in fact a “Mirror of Princes” used for the moral and political edification of rulers, but they contain wonderful anecdotes, which arc illustrated in Persian as well as Arabic manuscripts. And, as a final example, one most mention Persian lyrical poetry, especially the beautiful romances known as the Khamsa (Qoinret) composed c. 1200 by the poet Nizami (d. 1209), From the end of the 14th century, these were often illustrated, as were also, hot mote rarely, the poems of the Persian Hafez (d. 1389). Histories were occasionally illustrated, although, for the most part, they hardly qualify as literature; several examples exist of illustrations provided for the moralizing stories of the mystic poet Saadi (1219—1292). Enormous variations exist between these texts and the ways in which they were illustrated, As a general rule, imagery was created which directly reflected the written content hot, over the centuries, complex relationships developed between images relating to different texts. Most of this iconography was restricted to books until fairly lace in the 17th century, and, except for the epic stories of the Shahoame, there is little evidence that it was used in wall painting or in other forms of decoration. Altogether, although not as varied nor as huge as the repertoires found in Christian, Buddhist, or Hindu arc, the primarily secular vocabulary of Islamic painting provides examples illustrating a vast range of historical, legendary, and romantic events.
The second way in which literature inspired the arcs is more interesting than a simple recital of topics. As early as the last decade of the 12th century (at least insofar as preserved examples are concerned), literary works were used to express messages other than simply the illustration of a story. Many manuscripts were provided with frontispieces and ded
ications intended to reflect the glory of ruling princes. They could also be used as lessons in statesmanship, and, in many instances, served as ways co recollect. and to interpret, contemporary events throughreferences to past heroes. Satire could also be a feature, as in 13th-century Arabic, some 15th-century Iranian manuscripts, and, especially, from the 17th century onward, in the depiction of individuals. It is possible to argue that, as literature inspired paintings, it also used
paintings to make itself more immediately responsive to the pressures of any one time. Painting permitted constant aggiornamento, and thus the continuing relevance of literature.
The deep involvement of both Persian and Arabic speakers in their literature affected art in yet another way. As early as the 9th century, debates and discussions arose on literatary topics, the qualities of poets or writers, and the hierarchy of the genres they used. Literary criticism became the subject of theoretical analysis, and, of endless debates. Some of this analysis, such as that of al-Jurjani in the 11th century dealing with semantics or with metaphors and their psychological effect, or of Ibn al-Rami in the 15th century aiming to define beauty by describing ideal women, can be used to understand art. Just as with philosophy and the natural sciences, it is unlikely that many of these often abstruse theories of literature were commonly held or even known to the general public. Their existence in written works is, however, certain, and through them it is possible to imagine the critical climate within which art was created.
A word should, finally, be added about a literary genre which, mostly, emerged after the 15th century, and, apparently, was restricted to the Iranian world. As exemplified by Safavid artists like Qadi Ahmad, Dust Muhammad, and Sadiqi Beg, the artist’s autobiography is the most important factor for understanding Persian painting. Such personal artistic statements became particularly common in the Moghul period in India, where the memoirs of rulers, like the Babur-name (Book of Babur), in which the emperor Babur recounts the story of his life and his opinions on nearly everything, are essential in constructing the framework within which the arts can be understood.
The deep involvement of both Persian and Arabic speakers in their literature affected art in yet another way. As early as the 9th century, debates and discussions arose on literatary topics, the qualities of poets or writers, and the hierarchy of the genres they used. Literary criticism became the subject of theoretical analysis, and, of endless debates. Some of this analysis, such as that of al-Jurjani in the 11th century dealing with semantics or with metaphors and their psychological effect, or of Ibn al-Rami in the 15th century aiming to define beauty by describing ideal women, can be used to understand art. Just as with philosophy and the natural sciences, it is unlikely that many of these often abstruse theories of literature were commonly held or even known to the general public. Their existence in written works is, however, certain, and through them it is possible to imagine the critical climate within which art was created.
A word should, finally, be added about a literary genre which, mostly, emerged after the 15th century, and, apparently, was restricted to the Iranian world. As exemplified by Safavid artists like Qadi Ahmad, Dust Muhammad, and Sadiqi Beg, the artist’s autobiography is the most important factor for understanding Persian painting. Such personal artistic statements became particularly common in the Moghul period in India, where the memoirs of rulers, like the Babur-name (Book of Babur), in which the emperor Babur recounts the story of his life and his opinions on nearly everything, are essential in constructing the framework within which the arts can be understood.
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